Satellite telemetry and social modeling offer new insights into the origin of primate multilevel societies

Multilevel societies (MLS), in which polygynous reproductive units are nested in a larger social matrix, represent a highly complex social system documented only in a small number of mammalian species. Using long-term behavioural data, satellite telemetry and social network analysis, we present a new framework for understanding the function and social dynamics of the golden snub-nosed monkey MLS. Here we show that several one-male units form a cohesive breeding band that associates with one or more all-male units to form a herd. Herds seasonally aggregate and exchange members, thus facilitating gene flow and inbreeding avoidance. This MLS evolved from the aggregation of independent one-male, multifemale units that characterize ancestral Asian colobines; the evolutionary pathway leading to this MLS contrasts with that proposed for African papionins, which appear to have undergone internal fissioning of multimale-multifemale groups. The results suggest that both environmental and phylogenetic factors are important in the evolution of a primate MLS.